Tag Archives: change

Motivation – The why’s of behaviour

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“What lies in our power to do, lies in our power not to do.” Aristotle

Continuing with the theme of looking at change and how we can alter our behaviour to be happier this interesting article written by Susan Krauss Whitbourne looks at different theories about what actually motivates us.  Please read the article and see if you can identify with any of these theories of behaviour so that you can recognise which would be the best way for you to bring about positive change.

 

 

Motivation: The Why’s of Behavior

From instincts to self-actualization: What’s motivates us?
Published on October 29, 2011 by Susan Krauss Whitbourne, Ph.D. in Fulfillment at Any Age

 

Judging from the panoply of motivational books, speeches, videos, and how-to guides, you’d think that psychology has the surefire answer that can explain the simple basis for our many complex behaviors. As it turns out, the complexity of our behavior requires a complex set of explanatory ideas. After teaching these concepts in my introductory psychology course for many years, using Robert Feldman’s (2011) excellent text, I’ve found that these ideas can be boiled down to some straightforward and useful insights.Why #1: Instinct Theory. According to the oldest motivational theory on the books, organisms behave as they do because they are following a set of biologically pre-programmed instinctual urges.  Like the birds and the bees, humans are enacting a set of behaviors hardwired into our neural circuitry.  This theory is undoubtedly too simple to apply to humans, much less birds and bees. However, inner needs must certainly be part of the equation in understanding our behavior.

Why #2: Drive Reduction Theory. This next approach to motivation proposes that organisms large and small, simple to complex, prefer the state of homeostasis in which all of their needs are fulfilled. Their “drives,” in other words (the need states that propel behavior) must be “reduced.” Everyone might have a different definition of homeostasis-perhaps yours is sleeping late on a weekend morning, or just enjoying a relaxing drink in a cozy chair. Drive reduction theory’s critics agree that it’s great to have your needs met at least some of the time. However, if the theory were true, no one would ever seek out excitement. No one would go bungee jumping or seek comparable mental challenges.

 

Why #3: Arousal Theory.  At the opposite pole of drive reduction, arousal theory proposes that we seek to increase, not decrease, our level of stimulation.  We want the high that accompanies a rush of endorphins when we push ourselves physically or mentally.  Animals as well as humans get bored from too much homeostasis. However, too much arousal can also thwart our ability to achieve our goals. A variant of arousal theory, called the “Yerkes-Dodson Law,” takes this fact into account. The Yerkes-Dodson law proposed in 1908 but still used today (Smith et al., 2007), proposes that we each function according to an optimum level of arousal. You might consider this the “Goldilocks” principle of motivation. If you’re too sleepy or too nervous, you’ll invariably perform poorly, whether giving a speech or shooting a basketball. Each individual, and each task, has its own peak between arousal that is too low and arousal that is too intense. Once you find your optimum level of arousal, your performance will be both flawless and enjoyable.

 

Why #4: Incentive Theory.  Our behavior may also be determined by forces that propel us to do something we otherwise would not. Incentive theory is the basic principle behind marketing.  A good marketing strategy will cause you to want something you neither have nor think you need. You expect that by having this “thing,” you will be better off than you are without it (Beckmann & Heckhausen, 2008). It’s like those catalogs that fall out of your mailbox during the holiday season and the emails that clutter up your inbox offering unbelievable “deals.” Retailers are hoping that you will go after the products that they put out in front of you. Similarly, grocery, convenience, and large-scale retail clothing stores place their little but often expensive temptations where they are bound to have the most impact– namely, while you’re waiting to check out. An item that you would have given no thought to now becomes a handy little impulse purchase that you toss into your bag or cart. Adding to the draw of the impulse purchase is the fact that you may feel you deserve a treat, having practiced extreme self-restraint throughout the rest of your shopping expedition (a phenomenon called “ego depletion”).

Why #4: Incentive Theory.  Our behavior may also be determined by forces that propel us to do something we otherwise would not. Incentive theory is the basic principle behind marketing.  A good marketing strategy will cause you to want something you neither have nor think you need. You expect that by having this “thing,” you will be better off than you are without it (Beckmann & Heckhausen, 2008). It’s like those catalogs that fall out of your mailbox during the holiday season and the emails that clutter up your inbox offering unbelievable “deals.” Retailers are hoping that you will go after the products that they put out in front of you. Similarly, grocery, convenience, and large-scale retail clothing stores place their little but often expensive temptations where they are bound to have the most impact– namely, while you’re waiting to check out. An item that you would have given no thought to now becomes a handy little impulse purchase that you toss into your bag or cart. Adding to the draw of the impulse purchase is the fact that you may feel you deserve a treat, having practiced extreme self-restraint throughout the rest of your shopping expedition (a phenomenon called “ego depletion”).

Why #5: Cognitive Theory.  Moving from simple conditioning to the realm of behavior controlled by thoughts, the cognitive theory of motivation proposes that our expectations guide our behavior. You’ll behave in ways that you think will produce a desirable outcome. Cognitive theory, the creation of University of Rochester psychologists Ed Deci and Richard Ryan, proposed that we have two types of motivation: Intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is what drives us to fulfill our inner potential and interests. Your intrinsic motivation is your desire to express your true self in your behavior, whether it’s work or leisure. What’s more, when you are driven by intrinsic motivation, you feel that you are determining the outcomes of your efforts. Extrinsic motivation, by contrast, is your desire to achieve tangible rewards such as money or the glory that come with status and recognition.  Deci and Ryan developed the counter-intuitive proposal that people who receive extrinsic rewards for behaviors that they find intrinsically satisfying become less creative and productive. This has the picturesque name of “motivational crowding out.” The extrinsic rewards of money, fame, and recognition crowd out the intrinsic satisfaction that you experience from doing something because you really like to do it. The motivational crowding out idea has some obvious flaws.  Managers could use this theory to pay workers less or deny them promotions. “Why should we pay you more (or at all)?”  You’ll be less creative and productive! This problem led to a revision in the theory which is called …

Why #6: Self-Determination Theory. With the obvious flaw in cognitive theory, it became clear that work motivation needs to incorporate both intrinsic and extrinsic sources of motivation.  Deci and Ryan therefore revised their theory. Self-determination theory proposes that you can have a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation driving your work-related and other behavior. The most satisfying activities you can engage in, the ones that will motivate you the most, are those that allow you to feel most in control of your behavior. You can be motivated by the mundane satisfaction provided by extrinsic rewards. However, the more autonomy you feel, the more self-directed you’ll be, and the most satisfied you’ll be in your work, as suggested by research on college alums who felt they were fulfilling their intrinsic needs (Niemiec et al, 2009). Being able to express your inner motives and get paid at the same time is a hard combination to beat. The problem for many people is that they feel that their work behavior is controlled by factors outside of their own inner self-determination. It’s that feeling of external control that leads to job discontent and stagnation. The remedy to this problem is to find ways to express your autonomy, even if it’s only in a few minor ways.

Why #7: Self-Actualization Theory. At the very pinnacle of motivation, self-actualization theory proposes that we are most motivated to realize our own inner potential. Maslow’s self-actualization theory is one of the most recognizable topics in psychology, but also one of the least well-tested and least well-understood. According to Maslow, self-actualization is the true realization of your inner potential, whatever that is. Self-actualization is not a state of complete perfection. Maslow’s very lofty definition proposed that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming.  The hierarchy of motives for which Maslow became famous proposed that we have lower-order needs (those instincts and drives) and higher-order needs (total self-expression). After you satisfy your lower-order needs, says the theory, you can self-actualize. This idea might be wrongly translated into the expression “A hungry poet cannot write.” However, as we all know, hungry poets do write. In fact, many people will set aside physical needs, safety, and even positive regard from others in order to fulfill their highest-order needs. To many Steve Jobs was just such a man. Maslow actually proposed that, in fact, many of the people he considered self-actualized had given up their lower-order needs for safety, security, and even love, to realize their innermost passions. According to Maslow, very few people achieve this nirvana, and when they do, they’re typically in their middle or later years.

Now that you’ve seen the range of motivation theories, you’ve probably been able to pick out parts of each that apply to you either now or at some point in your past. By recognizing that your behavior reflects these many complex pieces, you can move on to developing your own unique path to change. Whether it’s arousal, incentive, self-determination, or self-actualization, understanding the motivation behind your behavior can give you the insights you need to develop your own unique pathway to fulfillment.

Follow me on Twitter @swhitbo for daily updates on psychology, health, and aging and please check out my website, www.searchforfulfillment.com where you can get additional information, self-tests, and links.

Copyright 2011 Susan Krauss Whitbourne Ph.D.

Resource:

Feldman, R.S. (2011). Understanding psychology (10e). New York: McGraw-Hill (an excellent overview of the above theories).

Read more here about SDT’s extensive empirical support and the response to criticisms from behaviorists and others.

References:

Beckmann, J., & Heckhausen, H. (2008). Motivation as a function of expectancy and incentive. In J. Heckhausen, H. Heckhausen, J. Heckhausen, H. Heckhausen (Eds.) , Motivation and action (2nd ed.) (pp. 99-136). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511499821.006

Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The path taken: Consequences of attaining intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations in post-college life. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(3), 291-306. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.09.001

Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (2007). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. In D. Smith, M. Bar-Eli, D. Smith, M. Bar-Eli (Eds.) , Essential readings in sport and exercise psychology (pp. 13-22). Champaign, IL US: Human Kinetics

 

Change destined to fail? Not Necessarily

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Change Destined to Fail? Not Necessarily

Article by Steve Safigan, published in Positive Psychology News on 5th January 2012

We traditionally try to make changes at the beginning of the year when New Year’s resolutions abound.  As I mentioned in my first post I made a resolution back in January to have the Happiness Experiment blog live by the end of the month and it took me until May to bring this to fruition.  I feel fine about this as I got there in the end and I am now happy to have the opportunity to share articles on the subject of positive psychology and happiness with my readers.  The fact is that change need not just be restricted to January, change can happen at any time to the year and it’s never too late to achieve your New Year’s resolutions. With this thought in mind, please take a few minutes to read this article written by Steve Safigan back in January at the traditional time of New Year’s resolutions. The articles is just as relevant to us in June nearly half way through the year as it was in January.  Your challenge with change may not be due to lack of willpower, motivation or commitment but to an immunity to change.  Read this interesting article to find out why this might be the case.

 

It’s difficult to change. This is demonstrated by the number of New Year’s resolutions people make and how few of them actually lead to lasting change, which may seem like evidence that attempts to change are doomed from the start.

Yet most of us see our resolutions as worthy and important. We truly want change, and we are sincere in our commitment to achieving it. People may attribute failure to lack of motivation: “If I just felt like it was important enough, I would do it.” Others may attribute it to a lack of commitment: “I didn’t really go into this prepared enough. I made a half-hearted decision.” Still others may attribute it to a lack of will-power: “I’m so undisciplined and lazy, it’s no wonder I failed.”

Dr. Robert Kegan

What if most failures to change are not because of a lack of motivation, commitment, or willpower? That’s what Harvard psychologist Robert Kegan and research director Lisa Laskow Lahey claim in their book, Immunity to Change. Dave Shearon reviewed the book in his April 2010 article, Change is hard, Except when it’s not. In the spirit of the season, we now take a fresh look at their work.

Technical Challenges and Adaptive Challenges

Underlying Kegan and Lahey’s work is a distinction made by leadership author and speaker, Ronald Heifetz, between technical challenges and adaptive challenges. Technical challenges, such as learning to fly an aircraft or build fine furniture, can be overcome by relatively straightforward and well-defined means and do not require deep changes in the way we think. Adaptive challenges, such as developing confidence or learning to stop procrastination, require major changes in the way we think.

Change: Bud to Blossom

Let’s take the example of resolving to lose weight, perhaps the most common of all New Year’s resolutions. If the change required is technical, then technical solutions work: We proceed to eat less, exercise more, and eat only healthy foods. If the challenge is truly technical, we succeed. More often, however, what initially appears to be a technical challenge is a cover for a deeper, adaptive challenge. Attempting to apply a technical solution to an adaptive challenge is destined to fail.

What could be the adaptive challenge in this example? Unfortunately, there are many reasons why people eat, and only one of these reasons is because we’re hungry. We may eat because we are bored, lonely, anxious, fearful, or worried. All of these are adaptive problems which require adaptive solutions. Adaptive solutions require a change to the underlying systems we have in place to keep us feeling safe.

Immunity to Change

We all have well-tuned systems of coping mechanisms that make us feel safe and help us avoid fear, anxiety, and emotional discomfort. Kegan and Lahey call these emotional immune systems, likening them to our biological immune systems. Our emotional immune systems are vigilant and intelligent in order to identify an outside attack and mobilize to fend it off.

Flu shots -
enhancing biological immunity

So how is resistance to change like an immune system? Let’s break it down. We might first start with a desire to change something, a worthwhile goal. Let’s say that the goal is to have closer relationships with others. We then make a commitment to change certain behaviors to meet the goal. These may include: (1) get out more; (2) act more social; and (3) make more efforts to be with friends. These are all technical solutions.

According to Kegan and Lahey, when someone attempts to change a well-functioning coping system, the emotional immune system springs into action to keep the person safe and prevent feelings of anxiety, guilt, shame, fear, and other emotional discomfort. We may have trouble identifying our own emotions. Instead of perceiving that we are uncomfortable in the face of change, we may feel that we are undisciplined or unmotivated or that we avoid or procrastinate. Without understanding the feelings we’re avoiding, we are unlikely to address the real reason that change does not occur. So how can we reach for adaptive solutions?

Step One: What Are We Doing or Not Doing Instead of Sticking to Our Commitments?

Kegan and Lahey recommend uncovering true feelings, the hidden agenda, by looking at what we’re doing to sabotage our own change. We can ask ourselves the questions recommended by psychologist William Perry for people attempting change: “What do they really want, and what will they do to keep from getting it?”

Being with friends

Let’s return to our example of wanting closer relations with others. Instead of looking at technical solutions, Kegan and Lahey recommend looking at what we’re doing instead of what we want to do. A possible list might include (1) I stay at home and isolate; (2) I am reserved and shy in social situations; and (3) I resist any conversation deeper than “cocktail party” conversation. The gap between what we want and what we do is a sure sign that there’s a payoff to what we do, something that’s protecting us from emotional discomfort.

Step Two: Identify Hidden Competing Commitments

So why do we sabotage the very changes we sincerely want to make? Kegan and Lahey identify what they call hidden competing commitments. Something about the change threatens the status quo that feels safe and comfortable. The visible commitment (in this example, to have closer relations with others) may be in direct opposition to a hidden commitment that is designed to protect us. It’s like having one foot on the gas and another foot on the brake. In our example, the hidden competing commitments might be (1) I am committed to having other people’s approval; (2) I am committed to appearing confident and self-assured; (3) I am committed to not getting hurt in relationships; and (4) I am committed to a sense of invulnerability to others.

Immunity Map Worksheet

Step Three: Identify Big Assumptions

Once we uncover our hidden competing commitments, we can step back and observe the big assumptions that underlie them. Possible big assumptions in our example include: (1) Other people will reject me if I do not actively seek their approval; (2) If I don’t project a confident image of myself then I will be seen as weak; (3) I am not strong enough to risk being hurt again in close relationships; and (4) If I show vulnerability then people will take advantage of me.

Kegan and Lahey use the term immunity map for the combined picture that includes our visible commitment, what we’re doing or not doing instead, our hidden competing commitments, and our big assumptions. The map is like an X-ray, showing us the real reasons why we resist the change we want.

Step Four: Implement an Adaptive Change

Protective gear

Technical changes to adaptive problems stimulate our emotional immune systems, which protect us from being defenseless in the face of danger. Like a biological immune system, an emotional immune system may reject something that is, in fact, good for us. Doctors suppress the biological immune system during organ transplants so that the body does not reject the new organ. It’s not a good idea simply to suppress the emotional immune system, however. It’s likely to produce deeper, buried emotions that are even thornier to pick out and address. Instead, we can design adaptive changes that integrate our emotional needs into the solutions themselves.

Adaptive changes take the immune system into account, addressing the alternative commitments and assumptions. It is not change itself that causes anxiety and discomfort; it is the feeling that we are defenseless in the face of apparent danger. When we are aware of alternative commitments and assumptions, we can draw on our creativity, courage, and resilience to redefine how we look at the real issue, honoring our need for self-protection.

What Next?

A short article summarizing Kegan and Lahey’s approach is necessarily limited. For a step-by-step guide to how to create your own immunity map, refer to Kegan and Lahey’s book-length treatment of this subject in Immunity to Change. For a different look at the book, check out Dave Shearon’s article.

Cheers to your change efforts in the coming year.

References:
Heifetz, R. & Linksy, M. (2002). A survival guide for leaders. Harvard Business Review. Also in HBR’s must-reads On Change.

Kegan, R. & Lahey, L. L. (2001) The Real Reason People Won’t Change. Harvard Business Review. Contained in HBR’s Must Reads on Change.

Kegan, R. & Lahey, L. L. (2009). Immunity to Change: How to Overcome It and Unlock the Potential in Yourself and Your Organization (Leadership for the Common Good). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Shearon, D. (2010). Change is hard, Except when it’s not. Positive Psychology News Daily.

                                                               

Images
Buds to Blooms courtesy of Vicki DeLoach
Flu Shot courtesy of Lance McCord
Cocktail party conversation courtesy of Vox photo

Immunity Map Worksheet
Protective gear courtesy of Katrina Cole

This article first appeared on Positive Psychology News. To see the original article, click here. To comment on this article, click here.

 

Willpower and behaviour change: wanting what you want to want

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“He who has a why to live for can bear almost any how”  Friedrich Nietzsche

Continuing with this week’s theme of introducing change in your life this great article by Jeremy McCarthy looks at ways to increase your willpower.  Although most people think that lack of willpower is the main reason they fail to achieve the goals they have set for themselves it turns out the real reason is that they lack motivation not willpower.  Before you embark on setting yourself yet another goal which is doomed to failure ask yourself how much you really want to achieve that goal.  Choosing to live a happier life is a really important goal so please read this article to help you to find the motivation to bring about the positive changes you want in you life from now on.  It’s an experiment that’s worth trying.

Willpower and behaviour change: wanting what you want to want

The American Psychological Association recently commissioned some research on stress and willpower in America to understand American perceptions of stress and the motivation to make lifestyle and behavior changes. Almost everyone that they surveyed (93%) had goals to change some aspect of their behavior in 2012. Lack of willpower is the top reason people give for falling short of their goals.

 

   Temptation in action

As you might expect, most of the goals people set are around improving health. In the last 5 years almost everyone has set one or more health goals including to eat better (77%), exercise more (75%), lose weight (66%), reduce stress (60%), or get more sleep (58%).

 

In spite of all of these noble goals, the APA’s research suggests that less than half of adults who recognize a needed change in lifestyle are able to maintain the change. There is good news for those wanting to cut back on alcohol because this is the exception. Quitting smoking and reducing stress seem to be the two hardest lifestyle factors to modify.

Why is change so difficult?

The #1 barrier to change that the Americans in the survey cited was a lack of willpower (27%.) But it is interesting to note that not having enough time is growing year over year as a perceived barrier. It is up to 26% in 2011 from 22% in 2010 and 20% in 2009. Time and willpower seem to be related since time was the number one thing respondents felt could help them to be more disciplined about behavior change. This makes sense since reducing time pressure does seem to be better for health.

 

Crushing Temptation

But if willpower is the biggest barrier to overcome, this is good news, since scientists such as Roy Baumeister have shown that willpower can be developed with exercise. “Like a muscle,” Baumeister would say. About 71% of the adults surveyed believed that willpower can be learned so most people are not constrained by their own self-limiting beliefs.

 

So what’s missing?

Why isn’t change easier? The answer seems to be motivation.

The participants who reported the highest levels of motivation were significantly more likely to be successful. It should be noted that participants reported that all or most of their motivation comes from within. Only 12% had the motivation of a family member, friend, or health care provider as the driving force.

Those with high motivation were also more likely to pursue certain success strategies that most people find challenging such as resisting temptation, and postponing short-term desires in exchange for better long-term outcomes.

A Motivation Exercise

Clearly, building motivation is an important part of behavior change and could be an aspect that people sometimes overlook. One exercise that people can use to build motivation is called “Wanting What You Want to Want” (WWYWTW). Most of the APA survey respondents cited setting clear goals and reminding oneself of the goal when temptation occurs as important strategies to follow. Setting a clear goal is about defining “what you want.” But WWYWTW is about defining what you want to want more. What do you want to be motivated more to do?

 

   What makes you want to run?

To do this exercise, analyze what you want to want more. For example, you might say, “I want to want to exercise more.” Then you analyze things that would make you want that more. For example, you might list “if I went with a friend; if I knew I had good music to listen to at the gym; if I had pictures up on my wall of very fit people.” This exercise can help to identify strategies to boost your motivation and therefore improve your lifestyle.

 

Since willpower is simply a person’s ability to do what is best in spite of other attractive options, it is strongly driven by the level of desire for the better outcome. So next time you are setting goals for yourself, don’t just ask “What do I want?” Ask, “What do I want to want?” and then grow that desire.

Editor’s Note: This article was simultaneously published in Jeremy’s blog, The Psychology of Well-Being. On June 6, Jeremy will be speaking on a panel with Jessica Alquist, one of Roy Baumeister’s willpower researchers, at the Global Spa and Wellness Summit at the Aspen Institute. 

References and recommended reading:

 

American Psychological Association (Feb. 12, 2012). Lack of Willpower May Be Obstacle to Improving Personal Health and Finances. Press release.

American Psychological Association (2012). What you need to know about willpower: The psychological science of self-control.
Baumeister, R. F. & Tierney, J. (2012). Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength. The Penguin Press.

American Psychological Association (2012). What Americans think about willpower: A survey of perceptions of willpower & its role in achieving lifestyle and behavior-change goals

Baumeister, R. F. & Tierney, J. (2012). Willpower: Rediscovering the Greatest Human Strength. The Penguin Press.

 
 

Jeremy McCarthy, MAPP ’09, is the Director of Global Spa Operations and Development at Starwood Hotels where he is responsible for spa development for all of Starwood’s hotel brands. Jeremy is applying positive psychology to the customer experience in spas and hospitality. The Psychology of Wellbeing is Jeremy’s blog. Full bio.

Jeremy’s articles here.

Images
Temptation in action courtesy of Nicole Hanusek
Crushing temptation courtesy of Tim Hulme
Run courtesy of Alejandro Groenewold